Meditation is a form of relaxation therapy that may be used alone or as an integral part of other therapies such as yoga.  It includes techniques such as listening to the breath, repeating a mantra, or detaching from the thought process, to focus the attention and bring about a state of self awareness and inner calm.  There are many types of meditation, with most originating in ancient religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, and Hinduism.  

There are several claimed benefits to meditation but most trials show either very weak evidence of effectiveness or strong bias in their conduct that effectively invalidates studies.  Meditation is claimed by those who derive financial benefit from teaching meditation or producing online books or videos about medication to relieve nervous system complaints such as headaches, depression, stroke, epilepsy and multiple sclerosis. They also claim relief from digestive system concerns including irritable bowel syndrome, ulcers, Crohn's disease and nausea. Also touted by meditation practitioners include rehabilitation from addictions such as drugs, smoking or alcoholism, asthma, acne, AIDS and various sexual problems.  But the controlled studies show minimal qualified relief.  For example, with asthma, meditation produces less psychological stress and reduced medication usage, but no difference in the physical measurable manifestations of the disease. Meditation produces no decrease in pain in chronic pain patients, but reduces the impact of pain on the life.  The lifestyle of meditation seems to impart a balance to life in our chaotic world that transcends any healing of physical diseases, therefore it is recommended as part of a lifestyle choice. Meditation is for the most part, harmless when used as a complementary practice, but when used as an alternative to traditional Western medicine, can cause delay in diagnosis and treatment of serious diseases.  

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MEDITATION TYPES:

Transcendental meditation (mantra based meditation)- founded by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in India in the 1950s, this type of meditation crosses over religions and philosophies, but has also been associated with cults. It is also a business model, with commercialized holdings with publishing companies, architecture design, radio and TV companies, a satellite TV network.  They also own "Flying Yoga", an advanced meditation practice program and a Ayurvedic medicine program. Transcendental meditation (TM) has been called a "new age religion" or a spiritual journey.  It may be religious as rooted in Hinduism, or non religious self help.  The meditation practice involves the use of a mantra that is given to the trainee based on sex and age, and is practiced for 15–20 minutes twice per day, while sitting with closed eyes. The mantras are not meaningless sounds but are the names of Hindu gods, therefore Christians who know this may have objection to using TM.  TM is also not free, and in the US costs up to $1000 for a course. TM was widely used from the 1970s on and is controversial due to its cult like status.

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Vipassana meditation (breath awareness meditation)- “Vipassana” is a Pali (also called Magadhan, is a Prakrit language native to the Indian subcontinent) word that means “insight” or “clear seeing”. Originating from a 6th century BC Buddhist practice, Vipassana meditation, as taught in the last few decades, comes from the Theravada Buddhist tradition, and was popularized by  S. N. Goenka and the Vipassana movement. 

The first aspect is concentration development through samatha practice by breathing awareness.  This is accomplished by focusing all attention from one second to the next on the movement of breathing, noting the subtle sensations of movement of the diaphragm and abdomen or focusing on the air passing from the nostrils impacting the upper lip. During this process other perceptions and sensations occur- sounds, feelings in the body, sounds, smells, itchiness in the body, thoughts, memories, and emotions. Note these sensations (noting) as they occur, naming them (secondary objects) as generalities but do not focus on specifics then return to the sensation of breathing, focusing on breathing as the primary object of concentration.  For example, if there is the noise of a car during meditation, note it as "hearing", not as a specific car noise. If unpleasant pain occurs in the back or knees, simply note it as "pain".  When one has thus gained “access concentration”, the attention is then turned to the object of practice, which is normally thought or bodily sensations. One observes the objects of awareness without attachment, letting thoughts and sensations arise and pass away of their own accord. Mental labeling (explained above) is often use as a way to prevent you from being carried away by thoughts, and keep you in more objectively noticing them.

As a result one develops the clear seeing that the observed phenomena is pervaded by the three “marks of existence”: impermanence (annica), insatisfactoriness (dukkha) and emptiness of self (annata). As a result, equanimity, peace and inner freedom is developed in relation to these inputs.  Mindfulness developed largely out of Vipassana. 

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Mindfulness (detached awareness of experience)- Mindfulness Meditation was adapted from traditional Buddhist meditation practices, especially Vipassana, but also having strong influence from other sources (such as the Vietnamese Zen Buddhism from Thich Nhat Hanh). “Mindfulness” is the common western translation for the Buddhist term "sati". Anapanasati, or “mindfulness of breathing”, is part of the Buddhist practice of Vipassana or insight meditation, and other Buddhist meditational practices, such as zazen. The main influencers for Mindfulness in the Western world is John Kabat-Zinn. He developed Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction program (MBSR), in 1979 at the University of Massachusetts Medical School, has been used in throughout the US in several hospitals and health clinic on the past decades. There are more than 3,000 medical publications on mindfulness. 

Mindfulness meditation is the practice of intentionally focusing on the present moment, accepting and non-judgmentally paying attention to the sensations, thoughts, and emotions that arise, similar to breath awareness meditation described above.

For the “formal practice” time, sit on a cushion on the floor, or on a chair, with straight and unsupported back. Pay close attention to the movement of your breath. When you breath in, be aware that you are breathing in, and how it feels. When you breath out, be aware you are breathing out. Do like this for the length of your meditation practice, constantly redirecting the attention to the breath. Or you can move on to be paying attention to the sensations, thoughts and feelings that arise.

The effort is to not intentionally add anything to our present moment experience, but to be aware of what is going on, without losing ourselves in anything that arises.

Your mind will get distracted into going along with sounds, sensations, and thoughts. Whenever that happens, gently recognize that you have been distracted, and bring the attention back to the breathing, or to the objective noticing of that thought or sensation. There is a big different between being inside the thought/sensation, and simply being aware of it’s presence.

Learn to enjoy your practice. Once you are done, appreciate how different the body and mind feel.

There is also the practice of mindfulness during our daily activities: while eating, walking, and talking. For “daily life” meditation, the practice is to pay attention to what is going on in the present moment, to be aware of what is happening – and not living in “automatic mode”. If you are speaking, that means paying attention to the words you speak, how you speak them, and to listen with presence and attention. If you are walking, that means being more aware of your body movements, your feet touching the ground, the sounds you are hearing, etc.

Your effort in seated practice supports your daily life practice, and vice-versa. They are both equally important.

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Sahaja meditation (passive witnessing of thoughts)-In 1970, Shri Mataji Nirmala Devi from India developed a technique of meditation with the belief that unlocking one's Inner Energy and achieving Self Realization through Thoughtless Awareness, should be attainable for all seeking it. Sit in a quiet place then-

• Place your right hand on your left side, just above your hip bone and quietly say, either out loud or to your self, “I want to experience the pure knowledge.”

• Next, move your right hand up along your side under the ribs and say, “I am my own teacher.”

• Then place your right hand over your heart and say, "I am one with my spirit."

• Now find your left shoulder-base of the neck area with your right hand, and say, "I do not condemn myself."

• Next, move your right hand over your forehead, tilt your head slightly forward and say, "I forgive everyone, including myself."

• Lastly, put your right hand on the top of your head with the palm down and rotate your palm slowly in a clock-wise direction saying, "Let me experience the state of meditation."

• Raise the palm above the shoulder and you will experience energy in the palm that may be warmth or coolness.  If there is no such perception then begin the meditation again.

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Self Inquiry or "I Am" meditation- Self-Enquiry is the English translation for the Sanskrit term "atma vichara" meaning to “investigate” our true nature, to discover the answer to the “Who am I?” question, and culminates with the intimate knowledge of our true Self, our true being. There are references to this meditation in very old Indian texts; but it was greatly popularized and expanded by the 20th-century Indian sage Ramana Maharshi(1879-1950). The later modern "non-duality movement" (or neo-advaita), was inspired by his teachings, as well as those of Nisargadatta Maharaj (1897-1981) and Papaji– strongly uses this technique and variations. 

This type of meditation practice is very simple, but has layers of complexity underneath the surface.  It initially appears to be very abstract. 

In this meditation, the sense of “I” (or “ego”) becomes your center focal point, and the center of of your universe. It lies beneath and permeates all feelings, sensations, thought, and perceptions, yet the "I" identity is not clear.  You confuse it with your body, thought, role, labels. It is our live's greatest mystery.  With Self-Enquiry meditation, the question “Who I am?” is asked within yourself while rejecting any answers that come, instead using the question as a means to fixate attention on the feeling of "I" or the "I am".  You become one with the concept, and by going deeply into the sensation of the I, your true "I" or real self consciousness that transcends all limits.  This type of meditation is not an intellectual pursuit, but a method to bring attention to your core fundamental structure of your being.  It is not associated with your personality, but is a perception of pure existence without images, concepts, or mantras. If thoughts or feelings come across your focus, you pose the question "To whom do these feelings or thoughts come?"  The answer is "I".  Then you proceed to ask "Who am I" to bring the center back into focus again. It is awareness without choices, since all focus will be directed back to "I".   Some find it easier to comprehend this meditation to focus the mind on your own feeling and sensation of existence, and the "I am" that shines inside, keeping it pure, avoiding any associations with others, other objects, other sensations, constantly redirecting back to "I".  Body position is not important in this type of meditation.

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Loving kindness meditation (Metta meditation)- Metta is a Pali word that means kindness, benevolence, and good will. This practice comes from the Buddhist traditions, especially the Theravada and Tibetan lineages. “Compassion meditation” is a contemporary scientific field that demonstrates the efficacy of metta and related meditative practices. Demonstrated benefits include: boosting one’s ability to empathize with others; development of positive emotions through compassion, including a more loving attitude towards oneself; increased self-acceptance; greater feeling of competence about one’s life; and increased feeling of purpose in life.  This type of meditation is used especially for treatment of insomnia, anger issues, or nightmares.  

One sits down in a meditation position, with closed eyes, and generates in his mind and heart feelings of kindness and benevolence. Start by developing loving-kindness towards yourself, then progressively towards others and all beings. Usually this progression is advised:

1. oneself

2. a good friend

3. a “neutral” person

4. a difficult person

5. all four of the above equally

6. and then gradually the entire universe

The feeling to be developed is that of wishing happiness and well-being for all. This practice may be aided by reciting specific words or sentences that evoke the “boundless warm-hearted feeling”, visualizing the suffering of others and sending love; or by imagining the state of another being, and wishing him happiness and peace.

The more you practice this meditation, the more joy you will experience. 

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Yogic meditation-  There is not one type of meditation which is “Yogic Meditation”, so here it is meant the several meditation types taught in the yoga tradition. Yoga means “union”. Tradition goes as far as 1700 B.C in India, and has as its highest goal spiritual purification and Self-Knowledge. Classical Yoga divides the practice into rules of conduct (yamas and niyamas), physical postures (asanas), breathing exercises (pranayama), and contemplative practices of meditation (pratyahara, dharana, dhyana, samadhi). The Yoga tradition is the oldest meditation tradition on earth, and also the one with the widest variety of practices.  

• Third Eye Meditation (Jyoti meditation) — An Indian type of meditation taught by Sant Rajinder Singh Ji Maharaj.  This technique relies on concentration of attention by withdrawing the sensory currents of sight, sound, taste, touch, and smell to the “third or single eye”.  Instead of concentrating on the lower chakras, focus is at the highest chakra in the body called the ajna chakra, also called the third or single eye, located on the middle of the forehead.   The technique involves sitting in a relaxed position and stilling the mind by repeating any name of God with which you feel comfortable.  With the eyes closed, concentration of the attention is at the third or single eye, between and behind our eyebrows, where is experienced a sense of calm and peace.  The meditation does not require one change their religion or beliefs, and in fact this path promotes positive mysticism, the belief that we should fulfill our duties and obligations to familes and societies while pursing spiritual goals.  For chronic neck pain, Jyoti meditation significantly reduced pain at rest from 45 to 22 compared to exercise that reduced pain from 44 to 38 in an 8 week randomized controlled clinical trial.  (J Pain 2015 Jan;16(1):77-86)focusing the attention on the “spot between the eyebrows” (called by some “the third eye” or “ajna chakra”). The attention is constantly redirected to this point, as a means to silence the mind. By time the “silent gaps” between thoughts get wider and deeper. Sometimes this is accompanied by physically “looking”, with eyes closed, towards that spot.

• Chakra Meditation — the practitioner focuses on one of the seven chakras of the body (“centers of energy”), typically doing some visualizations and chanting a specific mantra for each chakra (lam, vam, ram, yam, ham, om). Most commonly it is done on the heart chackra, third eye, and crown chackra.

• Gazing Meditation (Trataka) — fixing the gaze on an external object, typically a candle, image or a symbol (yantras). It is done with eyes open, and then with eyes closed, to train both the concentration and visualization powers of the mind. After closing the eyes, you should still keep the image of the object in your “mind’s eye”. This meditation is so important and powerful, that I wrote this post on the subject.

• Kundalini Meditation — this is a very complex system of practice. The goal is the awakening of the “kundalini energy” which lies dormant on the base of the spine, the development of several psychic centers in the body, and, finally, enlightenment. There are several dangers associated with this practice, and it should not be attempted without the guidance of a qualified yogi.

• Kriya Yoga — is a set of energization, breathing, and meditation exercises taught by Paramahamsa Yogananda. This is more suited for those who have a devotional temperament, and are seeking the spiritual aspects of meditation. To learn it, you can apply to receive the Self-Realization lessons, free of charge.

• Sound Meditation (Nada Yoga) — focusing on sound. Starts with meditation on “external sounds”, such as calming ambient music (like Native American flute music), whereby the student focuses all his attention on just hearing, as a help to quieten and collect the mind. By time the practice evolves to hearing the “internal sounds” of the body and mind. The ultimate goal is to hear the “Ultimate Sound” (para nada), which is a sound without vibration, and that manifests as “OM”.

• Tantra — unlike the popular view in the West, most Tantra practices have nothing to do with ritualized sex (this was practiced by a minority of lineages. Tantra is a very rich tradition, with dozens of different contemplative practices. The text Vijnanabhairava Tantra, for instance, lists 108 “meditations”, most of them more advanced (already requiring a certain degree of stillness and mind control). Here are some examples from that text:

  • Merge the mind and the senses in the interior space in the spiritual heart.

  • When one object is perceived, all other objects become empty. Concentrate on that emptiness.

  • Concentrate on the space which occurs between two thoughts.

  • Fix attention on the inside of the skull. Close eyes.

  • Meditate on the occasion of any great delight.

  • Meditate on the feeling of pain.

  • Dwell on the reality which exists between pain and pleasure.

  • Meditate on the void in one’s body extending in all directions simultaneously.

  • Concentrate on a bottomless well or as standing in a very high place.

  • Listen to the Anahata [heart chakra] sound.

  • Listen to the sound of a musical instrument as it dies away.

  • Contemplate on the universe or one’s own body as being filled with bliss.

  • Concentrate intensely on the idea that the universe is completely void.

  • Contemplate that the same consciousness exists in all bodies.

• Pranayama — breathing regulation. It is not exactly meditation, but an excellent practice to calm the mind and prepare it for meditation. There are several different types of Pranayama, but the simplest and most commonly taught one is the 4-4-4-4. This means breathing in counting up to 4, holding for 4 seconds, breathing out for 4 seconds, and holding empty for 4 seconds. Breathe through your nose, and let the abdomen (and not the chest) be the one that moves. Go through a few cycles like this. This regulation of breathing balances the moods and pacifies the body, and can be done anywhere.

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Zen meditation- Zazen (坐禅) means “seated Zen”, or “seated meditation”, in Japanese. It has its roots in the Chinese Zen Buddhism (Ch’an) tradition, tracing back to Indian monk Bodhidharma (6th century CE). In the West, its most popular forms comes from Dogen Zenji (1200~1253), the founder of Soto Zen movement in Japan. Similar modalities are practiced in the Rinzai school of Zen, in Japan and Korea.  Sitting in a quiet place either on a chair with the back straight or in the lotus or semi-lotus position before meditation begins.  There are two types of zen practice: 

• Focusing on breath — focus all your attention on the movement of the breath going in and out through the nose. This may be aided by counting the breath in your mind. Each time you inhale you count one number, starting with 10, and then moving backward to 9, 8, 7, etc. When you arrive in 1, you resume from 10 again. If you get distracted and lose your count, gently bring back the attention to 10 and resume from there.

• Shikantaza (“just sitting”) — in this form the practitioner does not use any specific object of meditation; rather, practitioners remain as much as possible in the present moment, aware of and observing what passes through their minds and around them, without dwelling on anything in particular. It’s a type of Effortless Presence meditation.  This is similar to the modern mindfulness technique.

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Mantra meditation- A mantra is a syllable or word, usually without any particular meaning, that is repeated for the purpose of focusing your mind. It is not an affirmation used to convince yourself of something. Some meditation teachers insist that both the choice of word, and its correct pronunciation, is very important, due to the “vibration” associated to the sound and meaning, and that for this reason an initiation into it is essential. Others say that the mantra itself is only a tool to focus the mind, and the chosen word is completely irrelevant.Mantras are used in Hindu traditions, Buddhist traditions (especially Tibetan and “Pure Land” Buddhism), as well as in Jainism, Sikhism and Daoism (Taoism). Some people call mantra meditation “om meditation”, but that is just one of the mantras that can be used. A more devotion oriented practice of mantras is called japa, and consists of repeating sacred sounds (name of God or gods) with love. 

Here are some of the most well-known mantras from the Hindu & Buddhist traditions:

• om

• so-ham

• om namah shivaya

• om mani padme hum

• rama

• yam

• ham

You may practice for a certain period of time, or for a set number of “repetitions” – traditionally 108 or 1008. In the latter case, beads are typically used for keeping count. As the practice deepens, you may find that the mantra continues “by itself” like the humming of the mind. Or the mantra may even disappear, and you are left in a state of deep inner peace.  As most type of meditations, it is usually practiced sitting with spine erect, and eyes closed. The practitioner then repeats the mantra in his mind, silently, over and over again during the whole session.

Sometimes this practice is coupled with being aware of the breathing or coordinating with it. In other exercises, the mantra is actually whispered very lightly and softly, as an aid to concentration.

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Taoist meditation- Daoism is a Chinese philosophy and religion, dating back to Lao Tzu (or Laozi). It emphasizes living in harmony with Nature, or Tao, and it’s main text is the Tao Te Ching, dating back to 6th century B.C. Later on some lineages of Taoism were also influenced by Buddhist meditation practices brought from India, especially on the 8th century C.E..

The chief characteristic of this type of meditation is the generation, transformation, and circulation of inner energy. The purpose is to quieten the body and mind, unify body and spirit, find inner peace, and harmonize with the Tao. Some styles of Taoist Meditation are specifically focused on improving health and giving longevity.

Image from InternalArtsInternational.com

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There are several different types of Taoist meditation, and they are sometimes classified in three: “insight”, “concentrative”, and “visualization”. Here is a brief overview:

• Emptiness meditation (Zuowang)— to sit quietly and empty oneself of all mental images (thoughts, feelings, and so on), to “forget about everything”, in order to experience inner quiet and emptiness. In this state, vital force and “spirit” is collected and replenished. This is similar to the Confucius discipline of “heart-mind fasting”, and it is regarded as “the natural way”. One simply allows all thoughts and sensations arise and fall by themselves, without engaging with or “following” any of them. If this is found to be too hard and “uninteresting”, the student is instructed with other types of meditation, such as visualization and Qigong

• Visualization (Cunxiang) — an esoteric practice of visualizing different aspects of the cosmos in relation to one’s own body and self.

• Breathing meditation (Zhuanqi) — to focus on the breath, or “unite mind and qi”. The instruction is “focus your vital breath until it is supremely soft”. Sometimes this is done by simply quietly observing the breath (similar to Mindfulness Meditation in Buddhism); in other traditions it is by following certain patterns of exhalation and inhalation, so that one becomes directly aware of the “dynamisms of Heaven and Earth” through ascending and descending breath (a type of Qigong, similar to Pranayama in Yoga).

• Inner Vision (Neiguan) — visualizing inside one’s body and mind, including the organs, “inner deities”, qi (vital force) movements, and thought processes. It’s a process of acquainting oneself with the wisdom of nature in your body. There are particular instructions for following this practice, and a good book or a teacher is required.

• Internal Alchemy (Neidan) — a complex and esoteric practice of self-transformation utilizing visualization, breathing exercises, movement and concentration. Some Qigong exercises are simplified forms of internal alchemy practices.

Most of these meditations are done seated cross-legged on the floor, with spine erect. The eyes are kept half-closed and fixed on the point of the nose.

Master Liu Sichuan emphasises that, although not easy, ideally one should practice by “joining the breath and the mind together”; for those that find this too hard, he would recommend focusing on the lower abdomen (dantian).

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Qigong (Chi Kung) -Qigong (also spelled chi kung, or chi gung) is a Chinese word that means “life energy cultivation”, and is a body-mind exercise for health, meditation, and martial arts training. It typically involves slow body movement, inner focus, and regulated breathing. Traditionally it was practiced and taught in secrecy in the Chinese Buddhist, Taoist and Confucianist traditions. In the 20th century, Qigong movement has incorporated and popularized Daoist meditation, and “mainly employs concentrative exercises but also favors the circulation of energy in an inner-alchemical mode” (Kohn 2008a:120).

Daoist practices may also employ Qigong, but since Qigong is also applied in other Chinese philosophies, I decided to treat it as a separate subject.

There are thousands of different Qigong exercises cataloged, involving over 80 different types of breathing. Some are specific to martial arts (to energize and strengthen the body); others are for health (to nourish body functions or cure diseases); and others for meditation and spiritual cultivation. Qigong can be practiced in a static position (seated or standing), or through a dynamic set of movements – which is what you typically see in YouTube videos and on DVDs. The exercises that are done as a meditation, however, are normally done sitting down, and without movement.

To understand more about Qigong and learn how to do it, I’d recommend getting a book or DVD set from Dr. Yang Jwing Ming, such as this one. But here goes an introductory overview of the practice of seated Qigong meditation:

• Sit in a comfortable position. Make sure your body is balanced and centered.

• Relax your whole body – muscles, nerves, and internal organs

• Regulate your breathing, making it deep, long, and soft.

• Calm your mind

• Place all your attention in the “lower dantien”, which is the center of gravity of the body, two inches below the navel. This will help accumulate and root the qi (vital energy). Where your mind and intention is, there will be your qi. So, by focusing on the dantien, you are gathering energy in this natural reservoir.

• Feel the qi circulating freely through your body.

Other famous Qigong exercises are:

• Small Circulation (also called “microcosmic circulation”)

• Embryonic Breathing

• Eight Pieces of Brocade (see this book excerpt  & Wikipedia article)

• Muscle Tendon Changing (or “Yi Jin Jing”, taught by Bodhidharma)

The first two are seated meditation, while the latter two are dynamic Qigong, integrating body stretches.

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Guided Imagary Meditation- Guided Meditation is, in great part, a modern phenomenon. It is an easier way to start, and you will find guided meditations based on several of the above traditions.

The practice of meditation requires some dose of determination and will-power. In the past, people that were into meditation were more committed to it, and also had strong ideals fuelling their motivation. Their life was more simple, with less distractions.

We live in very different times now. Our life is busier. Will power is a less common personal asset. Distractions are everywhere, and meditation is often sought as a means to develop better health, enhance performance, or improve oneself.

For these reasons, guided meditation can indeed be a good way to introduce you to the practice. Once you get the hang of it, and wish to take your practice to the next level, I would urge you to try meditation unassisted by audio. It is up to you to decide when you feel like taking this step.

Guided Meditation is like cooking with a recipe. It’s a good way to start, and you can eat the food you make like this. But once you understand the main principles and flavors, you can cook your own dish. It will have a different, unique taste; it will be tailored for you, and more powerful. And then you will not want to use the recipe anymore – unless if you are trying a dish of another cuisine. 

Guided meditation usually comes in the form of audio (file, podcast, CD), and sometimes audio and video. You will find that any guided meditation will fall in one of below categories (with some overlap, obviously).

• Traditional Meditations — With these types of audios, the voice of the teacher is simply there to “illustrate” or “guide” the way for your attention, in order to be in a meditative state; there is more silence than voice in it, and often no music. Examples are the ones offered by Thich Nhat Hanh and Tara Brach, which are rooted in authentic Buddhist practices. The purpose is to develop and deepen the practice itself, with all the benefitsthat come with it.

• Guided Imagery — Makes use of the imagination and visualization powers of the brain, guiding you to imagine an object, entity, scenery or journey. The purpose is usually healing or relaxation.

• Relaxation & Body Scans — Helps you achieve a deep relaxation in your whole body. It’s usually accompanied by soothing instrumental music or nature sounds. In Yoga these are called yoga nidra. The purpose is relaxation and calmness.

• Affirmations — Usually coupled with relaxation and guided imagery, the purpose of these meditations is to imprint a message in your mind.

• Binaural Beats — Binaural beats were originally discovered in 1839 by physicist Heinrich Wilhelm Dove. He discovered when signals of two different frequencies are presented separately, one to each ear, your brain detects the phase variation between the frequencies and tries to reconcile that difference. This is used to generate alpha waves (10 Hz), which is the brain wave associated with initial levels of meditation. There is scientific research into why and how binaural beats work.